The global apparel industry is characterized by the outsourcing of labor-intensive production to countries with low-cost labor, and as a result, apparel assembly manufacturing for export became a significant catalyst for economic growth in many emerging economies, drawing predominantly on female labor. Ethiopia is the latest in a long line of countries to enter apparel assembly for export, but one of the few to do so in the 21st century. The Ethiopian apparel export industry took off in earnest in the mid-2010s, aided by government investment policies and creation of several apparel-specific industrial parks around the country. It became a substantial contributor to the national economy via exports and employment creation, especially for women. The dominance of women is mostly shaped by norms in the global industry that see women as a cost-efficient and controllable labor force. Women employed in this industry face the dual challenges of insufficient wages and a significant gender pay gap while juggling work and family responsibilities.
This summary gives a quick overview of my ethnographic research, which is part of my PhD. The primary aim of the study is to investigate the lived experiences of female laborers at the Desta garment factory in Ethiopia, within the context of the global apparel industry's labor regime and the local social context. Located in Butajira town, in the East Gurage Zone of Ethiopia's central region, Desta is a locally owned apparel company manufacturing for export. It provides employment opportunities for young women from the city as well as migrants from the adjacent rural areas. I carried out 72 interviews and eight focus group discussions with Desta employees, local government officials, and elder community members. The majority of the participants are female employees of Desta, who come from agricultural households in adjacent rural areas. While the majority have completed an eighth or tenth grade education, others are pursuing college certificates and diplomas via night school, and a few have TVET credentials. These women are from low-income households, from both Christian and Muslim backgrounds, are mostly in their twenties, and single.
Factory as a site of patriarchal reinforcement
Desta has a comprehensive set of policies outlined in its administrative manual, codes of conduct, and other policy documents that address disciplinary measures, gender equality, sustainability, health and safety, human rights, recruitment, social compliance, and anti-discrimination. These policies attempt to create a disciplined workplace and workforce that meets international labor standards. Yet, interviews with present and former factory workers reveal significant disparities in how the company's labor laws are implemented, creating the paradoxical situation of patriarchal control and exploitation at the same time as empowering female workers.
One of the management practices that perpetuates patriarchal control by manipulating women workers' traditional gender roles is through its hiring and governance practices. Women are frequently assigned to positions considered appropriate for their assumed "patience" and repetitive abilities, while men are placed in positions that require physical exertion. According to a human resource officer, "The company prefers a low-cost labor force, and female workers consent to the low wages and the tedious nature of apparel work." This shows the different job expectations placed on men and women workers and indicates the expected docile personality and limited economic prospects of women, especially those coming from rural areas. The factory has been able to acquire a labor force that is compatible with its profit interests as a result of the subjective and collective gendered orientations and economic context of the workers.
Desta also reinforces patriarchal norms by controlling women workers' freedom and agency through strict rules, verbal abuse, and a high rate of firing for mistakes. This transforms the factory into an environment of fear and stress, posing additional challenges for women workers in their genuine pursuit of freedom and personal growth. The limitations imposed on their time and movement reflect the restrictions they encountered in their domestic surroundings, underscoring the pervasive influence of patriarchal ideology in both public and private spheres, dictating that women adhere to directives from various authorities. One female worker stated: "As Gurage women in our village, we are expected to remain silent, and consent with our family's decisions and raised in such environment, it is difficult for me to express my feeling, dissatisfaction and conditions of this work”. This remark demonstrates that women have been taught to remain quiet and tolerate an abusive atmosphere since reacting to the abusive circumstance is not acceptable and not women's behavior in their larger cultural settings.
Mistreatment and insults from foreign supervisors, such as referring to women as "mother's choice" and "begi" (meaning sheep), lead to bad labor relations, leaving female workers feeling worthless. Many workers convey that their concerns extend beyond insufficient wages; they feel devalued due to how they have been treated, which undermines their labor and contributions within the factory. A female worker stated: “I have worked in this factory for approximately 2 years and 8 months, and I have observed some progress in our wages, although it remains insufficient. However, I consistently feel devalued and insecure in my job due to the yelling from foreign managers and their unpredictable terminations.” Furthermore, the local supervisors lack proper sewing skills and leadership training, aggravating the difficulties encountered by workers. This circumstance leads to increasing tensions and incorrect direction, limiting the immediate assistance that local supervisors are supposed to offer based on their knowledge and social ties.
The respondents said that long working hours and tight production targets and standards make it difficult to stay in this line of work. Despite the company's attempts to address all workplace safety concerns, the nature of the task, which demands extended sitting or standing, creates health risks to female employees. The health issues identified are stress and burnout. Furthermore, the lack of appropriate breaks and restrictions on toilet usage among women workers contributes to physical health issues. A female worker stated, “I have experienced back pains, and my kidney is not healthy. The issue is that the supervisors prohibit breaks or visits to the factory clinic. Going there does not provide a proper health check-up. They allow for a 30-minute rest and then return to work.” The managers seem to be ignorant of the health conditions of the employees, refusing them access to clinics and restrooms when they are ill because they are women and are therefore reluctant to respond to such situations.
The absence of a labor union in the factory diminishes the potential for women workers to influence changes in their working conditions and improve labor relations within the factory. One female worker, who is a line supervisor and a member of the factory’s workers’ representative committee stated: “The factory lacks workers' unions, and I believe the workers are not aware of the establishment of such unions and their role in improving working conditions…..as a workers' representative committee member, I perceive the committee's contribution as limited, primarily serving as a liaison between workers and management….there also appears to be insufficient acceptance of the issues raised by the committee.”
Factory as a site of freedom
Despite the pervasive systems of patriarchal control and exploitation, women at Desta demonstrate agency in a variety of ways. Young women pursue employment in factories to escape traditional rural patriarchy, avoid early marriage and achieve greater independence. Desta provides an alternative to domestic labor and the limited opportunities available in rural areas. One of the employees stated: "Returning to my village is not an option, especially after rejecting my family's marriage requests." Another female employee said, "I work at Desta to avoid the exhaustion of constant household chores in my rural village, which can be challenging and stressful due to the lack of water and electricity." Village life is difficult; urban life provides better facilities, which make domestic work easier and less time-consuming. Some women consider the factory a stepping stone toward higher education or a better future. A worker who finished her diploma while working at the factory stated: "This factory offers time freedom, which allowed me to finish my diploma; now I feel more independent and am looking for a better job in my field." Even though the workers complain about low pay and mistreatment, they can still achieve financial independence, which allows them to pay for their night school. The majority are pursuing courses outside of the garment industry, such as accounting, marketing, and management, which they see as a path to a better job with higher pay as a professional worker.
The urban environment also provides young women with the opportunity to be exposed to a variety of lifestyles and ideas, which broadens their perspectives and inspires them to pursue their ambitions of personal development beyond the confines of early marriage and motherhood. An employee stated that “individuals in urban areas generally possess better perspective on their lives compared to those residing in rural area, and women enjoy a better status…..this might be as a result of the access to media and access to better awareness that shape individuals' overall opinions and attitudes.” Women workers’ engagement in the urban environment prompts them to criticize and evaluate the traditional perspectives and facilitates their decision-making abilities in accord with their personal preferences.
The employment of these young women at Desta provides an opportunity to challenge the prejudices and cultural stigma coming from their rural families. When women in Gurage culture depart from the rules of traditional society, they are subjected to shame and disgrace. For their decision to pursue alternative career options in Butajira town for employment, they are usually subjected to criticism and accused of participating in activities that are considered to be socially unacceptable. One women employee shared her experience, saying that "women who migrate and work in the city, such as at the factory, are labeled by society as not really working but instead doing other socially unacceptable things like prostitution." This kind of cultural stigma illustrate the Gurage society's constraints on women who choose to depart from traditional standards. The perpetuation of cultural preconceptions about rural areas leads to the association of urban inhabitants with "undesirable behaviors," which in turn leads to a decrease in confidence about the employment opportunities available to these young women. Under these circumstances, Desta factory serves as a key shelter, offering women a supportive atmosphere in which the physical confinement of factory work, which frequently necessitates long working hours and repetitive tasks, reduces their active engagement in the city's dynamic life. This ultimately enables them to convince their village families that they are participating in acceptable work and escape the stigmas.
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